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What is the contribution of the following in Atomic structure?
(a) Maharshi Kanada: Maharshi Kanada proposed that matter is composed of small, indestructible particles called atoms.
(b) Democritus: Democritus theorized that all matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms.
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State Dalton’s atomic theory.
Dalton’s atomic theory includes the following postulates:
- Matter is composed of small indivisible particles called atoms.
- Atoms of the same element are identical in mass and properties.
- Atoms cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction.
- Atoms of different elements combine in fixed ratios to form compounds.
- Chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms.
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What is an α (alpha) particle?
An alpha particle is a type of ionizing radiation consisting of two protons and two neutrons, similar to a helium nucleus.
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What are cathode rays? How are these rays formed?
Cathode rays are streams of electrons observed in vacuum tubes. They are formed when a high voltage is applied across the electrodes in a vacuum tube, causing electrons to be emitted from the cathode and travel towards the anode.
- (a) What is the nature of charge on cathode rays? Cathode rays are negatively charged as they consist of electrons.
- (b) State the properties of cathode rays. Cathode rays travel in straight lines, are negatively charged, produce fluorescence, can be deflected by electric and magnetic fields, and possess momentum.
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How are X-rays produced?
X-rays are produced when high-speed electrons collide with a metal target in an X-ray tube. The sudden deceleration of electrons upon impact releases energy in the form of X-rays.
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Why were anode rays also called as ‘canal rays’?
Anode rays were called ‘canal rays’ because they passed through canals or holes in the cathode of a discharge tube and traveled towards the anode.
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How does cathode rays differ from anode rays?
Cathode rays are composed of electrons (negatively charged), while anode rays are composed of positively charged particles (ions).
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State one observation which shows that an atom is not indivisible.
The discovery of subatomic particles such as electrons, protons, and neutrons shows that the atom is not indivisible.
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Name an element which does not contain neutron.
Hydrogen-1 (Protium) is an isotope of hydrogen that contains only one proton and no neutrons.
- (b) If an atom contains one electron and one proton, will it carry any charge or not?
No, the atom will be neutral because the positive charge of the proton cancels out the negative charge of the electron.
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On the basis of Thomson’s model of an atom, explain how an atom as a whole is neutral.
Thomson’s model, also known as the “plum pudding model,” suggests that the atom consists of negatively charged electrons embedded in a positively charged “soup” or matrix, making the atom overall neutral.
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Which sub-atomic particle was discovered by:
(a) Thomson: Electron
(b) Goldstein: Proton
(c) Chadwick: Neutron
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Name the sub-atomic particle whose charge is:
(a) +1: Proton
(b) -1: Electron
(c) 0: Neutron
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Which metal did Rutherford select for his α particle scattering experiment and why?
(a) Rutherford used gold for his α particle scattering experiment because gold is highly malleable, allowing it to be made into very thin foils.
(b) What do you think would be the observation of α-particle scattering experiment if carried out on:
(i) Heavy nucleus like platinum:
More deflections would be observed due to the higher positive charge and mass of the nucleus.
(ii) Light nucleus like lithium:
Fewer deflections would occur due to the lower charge and mass of the nucleus.
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On the basis of Rutherford’s model of an atom, which subatomic particle is present in the nucleus of an atom?
Protons and neutrons are present in the nucleus of an atom according to Rutherford’s model.
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Which part of the atom was discovered by Rutherford?
Rutherford discovered the nucleus of the atom.
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How was it shown that an atom has empty space?
Rutherford’s gold foil experiment showed that most α-particles passed straight through the foil, indicating that atoms are mostly empty space.
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State one major drawback of Rutherford’s model.
One major drawback of Rutherford’s model is that it could not explain the stability of atoms; according to classical physics, the electrons should spiral into the nucleus, leading to the collapse of the atom.
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In the figure given alongside:
(a) Name the shells denoted by A, B, and C. Which shell has the least energy?
A: K-shell (least energy), B: L-shell, C: M-shell
(b) Name X and state the charge on it.
X is the nucleus, and it is positively charged due to the presence of protons.
(c) The above sketch is of the Bohr model of an atom.
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Give the postulates of Bohr’s atomic model.
- Electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed orbits or shells.
- Each orbit has a fixed energy level.
- Electrons do not radiate energy while in these fixed orbits.
- Electrons can jump from one orbit to another by absorbing or emitting energy in the form of photons.
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(a) Name the three fundamental particles of an atom. Give the symbol and charge of each particle.
- Proton: Symbol \( p^+ \), Charge \( +1 \)
- Neutron: Symbol \( n^0 \), Charge \( 0 \)
- Electron: Symbol \( e^- \), Charge \( -1 \)
(b) Draw the orbital diagram of \( ^{40}_{20}\text{Ca}^{2+} \) ion and state the number of three fundamental particles present in it.
The orbital diagram for \( ^{40}_{20}\text{Ca}^{2+} \) ion has 18 electrons distributed in energy levels as \( 2, 8, 8 \). The ion has 20 protons and 20 neutrons.
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Complete the table given below by identifying P, Q, R, and S.
| Element |
Symbol |
No. of Protons |
No. of Neutrons |
No. of Electrons |
| Sodium |
\( ^{23}_{11}\text{Na} \) |
11 |
P = 12 |
11 |
| Chlorine |
\( ^{35}_{17}\text{Cl} \) |
17 |
Q = 18 |
17 |
| Uranium |
R = \( ^{238}_{92}\text{U} \) |
92 |
146 |
92 |
| Fluorine |
S = \( ^{19}_{9}\text{F} \) |
9 |
10 |
9 |
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The atom of an element is made up of 4 protons, 5 neutrons, and 4 electrons. What are its atomic number and mass number?
- Atomic Number: 4 (equal to the number of protons)
- Mass Number: 9 (sum of protons and neutrons)
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The atomic number and mass number of sodium are 11 and 23 respectively. What information is conveyed by this statement?
- Atomic Number (11): The atom has 11 protons and 11 electrons.
- Mass Number (23): The sum of protons and neutrons is 23, indicating 12 neutrons.
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Write down the names of the particles represented by the following symbols and explain the meaning of superscript and subscript numbers attached.
- \( _1^1\text{p}^+ \): Proton; the subscript (1) represents the atomic number (number of protons), and the superscript (1) represents the mass number.
- \( _0^1\text{n}^0 \): Neutron; the subscript (0) indicates no charge, and the superscript (1) represents the mass number.
- \( _{-1}^0\text{e}^- \): Electron; the subscript (-1) represents the charge, and the superscript (0) indicates negligible mass.
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From the symbol \( ^{24}_{12}\text{Mg} \), state the mass number, the atomic number, and electronic configuration of magnesium.
- Mass Number: 24
- Atomic Number: 12
- Electronic Configuration: \( 2, 8, 2 \)
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Sulphur has an atomic number 16 and a mass of 32.
- State the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of sulphur.
- Number of Protons: 16
- Number of Neutrons: 16
- Give a simple diagram to show the arrangement of electrons in an atom of sulphur.
- The electronic configuration for sulphur is \( 2, 8, 6 \), meaning the electrons are arranged in three shells.
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Explain the rule according to which electrons are filled in various energy levels.
Electrons fill orbitals in order of increasing energy levels (Aufbau Principle). The order is \( 1s \), \( 2s \), \( 2p \), \( 3s \), \( 3p \), etc. Electrons will first fill the lowest energy level before moving to the next.
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Write down the electronic configuration of the following:
- \( ^{27}_{13}\text{X} \)
- Electronic Configuration: \( 2, 8, 3 \)
- \( ^{35}_{17}\text{Y} \)
- Electronic Configuration: \( 2, 8, 7 \)
Write down the number of electrons in X and neutrons in Y.
- Number of Electrons in X: 13
- Number of Neutrons in Y: 18 (Mass number – Atomic number)
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How does the Modern atomic theory contradict and correlate with Dalton’s atomic theory?
- Contradictions:
- Dalton’s theory stated that atoms are indivisible, but modern atomic theory has shown that atoms are made up of subatomic particles (protons, neutrons, and electrons).
- Dalton’s theory stated that atoms of the same element are identical, but modern theory shows the existence of isotopes, where atoms of the same element can have different numbers of neutrons.
- Correlations:
- Both theories agree that atoms are the basic units of matter and that atoms of different elements have different properties.
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(a) What are inert elements?
- Inert elements, also known as noble gases, are elements that do not readily react with other elements due to their stable electron configuration. Examples include Helium, Neon, and Argon.
(b) Why do they exist as monoatoms in molecules?
Inert elements exist as monoatomic molecules because they already have a full valence electron shell, making them chemically stable and unreactive.
(c) What are valence electrons?
Valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost shell of an atom. They are responsible for the chemical properties and reactivity of the element.
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In what respects do the three isotopes of hydrogen differ? Give their structures.
The three isotopes of hydrogen differ in the number of neutrons:
- Protium (\( ^1_1\text{H} \)): 1 proton, 0 neutrons.
- Deuterium (\( ^2_1\text{H} \)): 1 proton, 1 neutron.
- Tritium (\( ^3_1\text{H} \)): 1 proton, 2 neutrons.
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Match the atomic numbers 4, 14, 8, 15, and 19 with each of the following:
- (a) A solid non-metal of valency 3: 15 (Phosphorus)
- (b) A gas of valency 2: 8 (Oxygen)
- (c) A metal of valency 1: 19 (Potassium)
- (d) A non-metal of valency 4: 14 (Carbon)
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Draw diagrams representing the atomic structures of the following:
(a) Sodium atom
(b) Chlorine ion
(c) Carbon atom
(d) Oxygen ion
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What is the significance of the number of protons found in the atoms of different elements?
The number of protons, also known as the atomic number, uniquely identifies an element. It determines the element’s identity and its position in the periodic table, as well as its chemical properties.
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Elements X, Y, and Z have atomic numbers 6, 9, and 12 respectively. Which one:
- (a) forms an anion: Y (Fluorine, atomic number 9, tends to gain one electron to form an anion \( F^- \))
- (b) forms a cation: Z (Magnesium, atomic number 12, tends to lose two electrons to form a cation \( Mg^{2+} \))
- (c) has four electrons in its valence shell: X (Carbon, atomic number 6, has the electronic configuration \( 2, 4 \))
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Element X has electronic configuration \( 2, 8, 18, 8, 1 \). Without identifying X:
- (a) Predict the sign and charge on a simple ion of X.
X is likely to lose one electron to achieve a stable configuration, forming a cation with a charge of \( +1 \).
- (b) Write if X will be an oxidizing agent or a reducing agent. Why?
X will be a reducing agent because it tends to lose electrons and donate them to other atoms.
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Define the terms:
- (a) Mass number: The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom’s nucleus.
- (b) Ion: An atom or molecule that has gained or lost one or more electrons, giving it a positive or negative charge.
- (c) Cation: A positively charged ion, formed when an atom loses one or more electrons.
- (d) Anion: A negatively charged ion, formed when an atom gains one or more electrons.
- (e) Element: A substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical means; composed of atoms all with the same atomic number.
- (f) Orbit: The path in which electrons move around the nucleus of an atom in fixed energy levels.
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From the symbol \( ^{4}_{2}\text{He}^{+} \) for the element helium, write down the mass number and the atomic number of the element.
- Mass Number: 4
- Atomic Number: 2
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Five atoms are labelled A to E:
| Atoms |
Mass No. |
Atomic No. |
| A |
40 |
20 |
| B |
19 |
9 |
| C |
7 |
3 |
| D |
16 |
8 |
| E |
14 |
7 |
- (a) Which one of these atoms:
- (i) contains 7 protons: E (Atomic number 7)
- (ii) has electronic configuration \( 2, 7 \): B (Atomic number 9)
- (b) Write down the formula of the compound formed between C and D.
The compound formed between C (Lithium) and D (Oxygen) is \( \text{Li}_2\text{O} \).
- (c) Predict:
(i) Metals: A (Calcium), C (Lithium)
(ii) Non-metals: B (Fluorine), D (Oxygen), E (Nitrogen)
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An atom of an element has two electrons in the M shell.
This indicates that the element has an atomic number of 12, which corresponds to Magnesium, with an electronic configuration of \( 2, 8, 2 \).
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How do atoms attain noble gas configuration?
Atoms attain noble gas configuration by gaining, losing, or sharing electrons to achieve a full valence shell, which usually contains 8 electrons (octet rule) or 2 electrons for hydrogen and helium (duplet rule).
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Define:
- (a) A chemical bond: A chemical bond is the force of attraction that holds atoms together in a molecule or compound.
- (b) An electrovalent bond: An electrovalent bond, also known as an ionic bond, is formed when one atom donates an electron to another atom, resulting in the formation of oppositely charged ions that attract each other.
- (c) A covalent bond: A covalent bond is formed when two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons.
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What are the conditions necessary for the formation of an electrovalent bond?
One atom must have a low ionization energy to easily lose an electron, while the other atom must have high electron affinity to gain the electron. The difference in electronegativity between the two atoms should be significant.
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An atom X has three electrons more than the noble gas configuration. What type of ion will it form? Write the formula of its:
- (i) Sulphate: \( X_2(\text{SO}_4)_3 \)
- (ii) Nitrate: \( X(\text{NO}_3)_3 \)
- (iii) Phosphate: \( X(\text{PO}_4) \)
- (iv) Carbonate: \( X_2(\text{CO}_3)_3 \)
- (v) Hydroxide: \( X(\text{OH})_3 \)
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Mention the basic tendency of an atom which makes it combine with other atoms.
The basic tendency of an atom is to achieve a stable electron configuration, typically by attaining a full outer shell of electrons, similar to that of noble gases.
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What type of compounds are usually formed between metals and non-metals and why?
Metals and non-metals usually form ionic compounds because metals tend to lose electrons and form positive ions, while non-metals tend to gain electrons and form negative ions, resulting in electrostatic attraction.
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In the formation of the compound \( XY_2 \), an atom X gives one electron to each Y atom. What is the nature of bond in \( XY_2 \)? Draw the electron dot structure of this compound.
The bond in \( XY_2 \) is ionic, as atom X donates electrons to Y atoms.
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An atom X has 2,8,7 electrons in its shell. It combines with Y having 1 electron in its outermost shell.
- (a) What type of bond will be formed between X and Y?
An ionic bond will be formed.
- (b) Write the formula of the compound formed.
The formula of the compound is \( XY \).
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Draw orbit structure and electron dot diagrams of \( \text{NaCl} \), \( \text{MgCl}_2 \), and \( \text{CaO} \).
- (a) \( \text{NaCl} \): Sodium donates one electron to chlorine.
- (b) \( \text{MgCl}_2 \): Magnesium donates two electrons, one to each chlorine atom.
- (c) \( \text{CaO} \): Calcium donates two electrons to oxygen.
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Compare:
- (a) Sodium atom and sodium ion:
- Atomic Structure: Sodium atom has 11 electrons, while sodium ion has 10 electrons.
- Electrical State: Sodium atom is neutral, sodium ion has a +1 charge.
- Chemical Action: Sodium atom is highly reactive, sodium ion is stable.
- Toxicity: Sodium ion is essential in biological systems, while sodium atom can be dangerous due to reactivity.
- (b) Chlorine atom and chloride ion, with respect to:
- Atomic Structure: Chlorine atom has 17 electrons, while chloride ion has 18 electrons.
- Electrical State: Chlorine atom is neutral, chloride ion has a -1 charge.
- Chemical Action: Chlorine atom is highly reactive, chloride ion is stable.
- Toxicity: Chlorine gas is toxic, chloride ions are essential in small amounts in biological systems.
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The electronic configuration of fluoride ion is the same as that of a neon atom. What is the difference between the two?
Both have the same electronic configuration, but the fluoride ion has a negative charge due to the extra electron, while the neon atom is neutral.
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(a) What do you understand by redox reactions? Explain oxidation and reduction in terms of loss or gain of electrons.
Redox reactions involve the transfer of electrons between substances. Oxidation is the loss of electrons, while reduction is the gain of electrons.
(b) Divide the following redox reactions into oxidation and reduction half reactions:
- (i) \( \text{Zn} + \text{Pb}^{2+} \rightarrow \text{Zn}^{2+} + \text{Pb} \)
- Oxidation: \( \text{Zn} \rightarrow \text{Zn}^{2+} + 2e^- \)
- Reduction: \( \text{Pb}^{2+} + 2e^- \rightarrow \text{Pb} \)
- (ii) \( \text{Zn} + \text{Cu}^{2+} \rightarrow \text{Zn}^{2+} + \text{Cu} \)
- Oxidation: \( \text{Zn} \rightarrow \text{Zn}^{2+} + 2e^- \)
- Reduction: \( \text{Cu}^{2+} + 2e^- \rightarrow \text{Cu} \)
- (iii) \( \text{Cl}_2 + 2\text{Br}^- \rightarrow 2\text{Cl}^- + \text{Br}_2 \)
- Oxidation: \( 2\text{Br}^- \rightarrow \text{Br}_2 + 2e^- \)
- Reduction: \( \text{Cl}_2 + 2e^- \rightarrow 2\text{Cl}^- \)
- (iv) \( \text{Sn}^{2+} + 2\text{Hg}^{2+} \rightarrow \text{Sn}^{4+} + 2\text{Hg}_2^{+2} \)
- Oxidation: \( \text{Sn}^{2+} \rightarrow \text{Sn}^{4+} + 2e^- \)
- Reduction: \( 2\text{Hg}^{2+} + 2e^- \rightarrow \text{Hg}_2^{+2} \)
- (v) \( 2\text{Cu}^+ \rightarrow \text{Cu} + \text{Cu}^{2+} \)
- Oxidation: \( 2\text{Cu}^+ \rightarrow \text{Cu}^{2+} + \text{Cu} \)
(c) Potassium (at No. 19) and chlorine (at No. 17) react to form a compound. Explain on the basis of electronic concept:
- (i) Oxidation: Potassium loses one electron (oxidation) to form \( \text{K}^+ \).
- (ii) Reduction: Chlorine gains one electron (reduction) to form \( \text{Cl}^- \).
- (iii) Oxidising agent: Chlorine acts as the oxidizing agent.
- (iv) Reducing agent: Potassium acts as the reducing agent.
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Explain the following:
- (a) Electrovalent compounds conduct electricity in molten or aqueous state.
Electrovalent compounds (ionic compounds) conduct electricity when molten or dissolved in water because the ions are free to move and carry an electric current.
- (b) Electrovalent compounds have a high melting point and boiling point while covalent compounds have low melting and boiling points.
Electrovalent compounds have strong electrostatic forces between the ions, requiring more energy to break these bonds, resulting in high melting and boiling points. Covalent compounds have weaker intermolecular forces.
- (c) Electrovalent compounds dissolve in water whereas covalent compounds do not.
Electrovalent compounds dissociate into ions in water, which allows them to dissolve, while covalent compounds typically do not ionize and thus do not dissolve as easily in water.
- (d) Electrovalent compounds are usually hard crystals yet brittle.
The strong ionic bonds make electrovalent compounds hard, but they are brittle because the layers of ions can slip and cause the crystal to shatter.
- (e) Polar covalent compounds conduct electricity.
Polar covalent compounds may conduct electricity if they ionize in solution, allowing ions to carry an electric current.
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A solid is crystalline, has a high melting point, and is water soluble. Describe the nature of the solid.
The solid is likely to be an ionic compound because it is crystalline, has a high melting point, and is soluble in water.
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Match the atomic number 4, 8, 14, 15, and 19 with each of the following:
- (a) A solid non-metal of valency 3: 15 (Phosphorus)
- (b) A gas of valency 2: 8 (Oxygen)
- (c) A metal of valency 1: 19 (Potassium)
- (d) A non-metal of valency 4: 14 (Carbon)
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Elements X, Y, and Z have atomic numbers 6, 9, and 12 respectively. Which one:
- (a) Forms an anion: Y (Fluorine, atomic number 9, forms \( F^- \))
- (b) Forms a cation: Z (Magnesium, atomic number 12, forms \( Mg^{2+} \))
- (c) State the type of bond between Y and Z and give its molecular formula.
The bond between Y and Z is ionic, and the molecular formula is \( MgF_2 \).
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Taking \( \text{MgCl}_2 \) as an electrovalent compound, and \( \text{CCl}_4 \) as a covalent compound, give four differences between electrovalent and covalent compounds.
- Electrovalent (Ionic) Compound \( \text{MgCl}_2 \):
- High melting and boiling points.
- Conducts electricity in molten or aqueous state.
- Soluble in water.
- Forms crystals that are hard but brittle.
- Covalent Compound \( \text{CCl}_4 \):
- Low melting and boiling points.
- Does not conduct electricity.
- Insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.
- Forms molecules that are generally soft and flexible.
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Potassium chloride is an electrovalent compound, while hydrogen chloride is a covalent compound. But, both conduct electricity in their aqueous solutions. Explain.
In aqueous solution, potassium chloride dissociates into ions \( K^+ \) and \( Cl^- \), which conduct electricity. Hydrogen chloride, a covalent compound, ionizes in water to form \( H^+ \) and \( Cl^- \), allowing the solution to conduct electricity.
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(a) Name two compounds that are covalent when pure but produce ions when dissolved in water.
- Examples: Hydrogen chloride (HCl), Sulphur dioxide (SO₂).
(b) For each compound mentioned above, give the formulae of ions formed in aqueous solutions.
- Hydrogen chloride (HCl): \( H^+ \) and \( Cl^- \)
- Sulphur dioxide (SO₂): \( HSO_3^- \)
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An element M burns in oxygen to form an ionic compound MO. Write the formula of the compounds formed if this element is made to combine with chlorine and sulphur separately.
- With chlorine: \( MCl_2 \)
- With sulphur: \( MS \)
-
Give electron dot diagram of the following:
- (a) Magnesium chloride: Mg donates two electrons to two chlorine atoms.
- (b) Nitrogen: Nitrogen atoms share three pairs of electrons.
- (c) Methane: Carbon shares one electron with each hydrogen atom.
- (d) Hydrogen chloride: Hydrogen shares one electron with chlorine.
-
State the type of bonding in the following molecules:
- (a) Water: Covalent bonding (Polar)
- (b) Calcium oxide: Ionic bonding
- (c) Hydrogen chloride: Covalent bonding (Polar)
-
Element M forms a chloride with the formula \( MCl_2 \) which is a solid with a high melting point. M would most likely be in the group in which ……. is placed.
- (a) Na
- (b) Mg
- (c) Al
- (d) Si
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Compound X consists of molecules.
- (a) Choose the letter corresponding to the correct answer from the options A, B, C, and D given below:
- (i) The type of bonding in X will be:
- A. Ionic
- B. Electrovalent
- C. Covalent
- D. Molecular
- (ii) X is likely to have a:
- A. Low melting point and high boiling point
- B. High melting point and low boiling point
- C. Low melting point and low boiling point
- D. High melting point and high boiling point
- (iii) In the liquid state, X will:
- A. Become ionic
- B. Be an electrolyte
- C. Conduct electricity
- D. Not conduct electricity
- (b) If electrons are getting added to an element Y, then is Y getting oxidized or reduced?
Y is getting reduced.
- (c) What charge will Y migrate to during the process of electrolysis?
Y will migrate to the anode (positive electrode).
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Choose the correct answer from the choices A, B, C, and D:
- (i) The property which is characteristic of an electrovalent compound is that:
- A. It is easily vaporized
- B. It has a high melting point
- C. It is a weak electrolyte
- D. It often exists as a liquid
- (ii) When a metal atom becomes an ion:
- A. It loses electrons and is oxidized
- B. It gains electrons and is reduced
- C. It gains electrons and is oxidized
- D. It loses electrons and is reduced
-
Identify the following reactions as either oxidation or reduction:
- (i) \( O + 2e^- \rightarrow O^{2-} \): Reduction
- (ii) \( K – e^- \rightarrow K^+ \): Oxidation
- (iii) \( Fe^{3+} + e^- \rightarrow Fe^{2+} \): Reduction
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(a) Name the charged particles which attract one another to form electrovalent compounds.
Cations (positively charged) and anions (negatively charged).
(b) In the formation of electrovalent compounds, electrons are transferred from one element to another. How are electrons involved in the formation of a covalent compound?
In a covalent compound, electrons are shared between atoms rather than transferred.
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(a) The electronic configuration of nitrogen is (2, 5). How many electrons in the outer shell of a nitrogen atom are not involved in the formation of a nitrogen molecule?
Two electrons are not involved in bonding in the formation of a nitrogen molecule.
(b) In the formation of magnesium chloride (by direct combination between magnesium and chlorine), name the substance that is oxidized and the substance that is reduced.
Magnesium is oxidized, and chlorine is reduced.
